Talk:Dvaita Vedanta Darsana

By Swami Harshananda

Dvaita Vedanta Darsana

Introduction

The Vedanta-darsana is the last of the six well-known systems of Indian philosophy. It has three main branches:

1. Advaita
2. Visistadvaita
3. Dvaita

The Dvaita Vedanta system was vigorously propounded and propagated by Madhva (A. D. 1238- 1317). It was the most powerful reaction to the extreme idealism of Advaita taught by Śaṅkara (A.D. 788-820) and his followers. Madhva, a dualistic philosopher has severely treated the topics like:

• The division of reality into two tiers viz., the vyāvahārika (empirical) and the pāramārthika (absolute)
• The doctrines of Nirviśeṣa-brahman (Supreme Being without attributes)
• Mithyātva (falsity) of the objective world as asserted by the Advaitins

Dvaita Literature

Contrary to the general understanding, the literature on the dvaita philosophy of Madhva is quite extensive. Madhva has 37 works in his credit. These works are generally known as Sarvamulagrantha.

Brahmasutra Treaties

Apart from the commentaries on the ten Upaniṣads and the Bhagavadgitā, he has authored three treaties on the Brahmasutras. These treaties are:

1. Brahmasutrabhāsya
2. Anubhāsya
3. Anuvyākhyāna

Other Literatures

Some of the other works that may be mentioned are:

1. A special class of literature known as the Tātparya nirnaya on the Bhagavadgitā
2. The Mahābhārata
3. The Bhāgavata
4. Visnutattva vinirnaya,
5. Rgbhāsya
6. Māyāvāda-khandana

Literary Works of the Dvaita School

Some more important works of this school are:

• By Jayatīrtha (13th century A. D.):

1. Nyāyasudhā on the Anuvyākhyāna
2. Tattvaprakāśikā on the Brahma-sutrabhāsya
3. Nyāyadipikā on the Gitā-tātparyanirnaya
4. Prameya-dīpikā on the Gltābhāsya

• By Vyāsatīrtha, also known as Vyāsarāya (A. D. 1447-1539):

1. Nyāyāmrta
2. Tarkatāndava
3. Candrikā

• By Rāghavendra (A.D. 1598-1671):

1. Nyāyasudhāparimalā

Philosophy

Classification

Generally, the systems of philosophy discuss their subject under four broad categories:

1. Pramāṇa - means of knowledge
2. Prameya - what is to be ascertained by the pramāṇas
3. Sādhanās - spiritual practices
4. Mokṣa - liberation from trans migratory existence

Pramānas

Like most of the other schools, the Dvaita Vedānta of Madhva accepts the three pramāṇas. They are:

1. Pratyakṣa - direct perception
2. Anumāna - inference
3. Śabda, śruti or āgama - scriptural testimony

However in the matter of worldly things, a great importance is given to pratyakṣa. It never concedes that this world of sensory experience is mithyā (illusion) as it has been a universal and direct experience. This experience attains certainty because it is illumined by the energy of the jiva (the individual soul). This energy is called sākṣi in this system.

The analogy of the snake being perceived on a rope in semi-darkness cannot be extended to the experience of the world because the snake never existed. It was only an illusory perception. Hence, it was sublated by the perception of the rope. This ‘khyāti’ or the theory of illusory perception has been named here as ‘abhinava-anyathakhyati’.

For the things beyond the ken of our sensory perceptions and inferences, the śabda or the scripture (the Veda) is considered as the ultimate authority. The Upaniṣads contain statements which support the theory of Brahman, the Absolute, without attributes. It denotes him as a Person (God) with infinitely great and auspicious qualities.

The Advaita Vedanta treats the Brahman as the main import of these statements and gives a lower status to Personal God in its two tier theory of vyavaharika-satya and paramarthika-satya. The Dvaita Vedanta of Madhva considers the Brahman as the main import and the scriptures as supporting the same in a round-about way.

The latter texts are called ‘upajivya’ and the former are known as ‘upajivaka’. Since the multiplicity of the world is a universal fact, it is certified by the saksi. Its denial by the upajivaka texts should be construed in a symbolic way, just like asserting the unity of many in one.

Prameyas

The prameyas are classified into 10 sections as per this system. These categories are:

• Dravya - substance: Dravya or substance is the substratum of attributes and the material cause of evolution. It resembles some entities like prakrti and the emanation in others like Brahman and the jiva. It is six types:

1. Brahman or Visnu - God
2. Laksmi - Consort of God
3. Jivas - individual souls
4. Avyakrta-akasa - unmodified space
5. Prakrti - the insentient material cause
6. Three guṇas - Sattva, Rajas, Tamas

• Guṇa - quality: Gunas are attributes. They are countless. They may be physical, mental or spiritual. But they always depend on the substances they qualify. God is never touched by the bad gunas.

• Karma - action: Karma or actions are responsible for the pleasant and the painful experiences of the jivas. They are of two kinds:

1. Punya - meritorious
2. Papa - sinful

• Samanya - character: Samanya or universal is the property by which we see something common in a plurality of objects. As for instance ‘tableness’ in several tables, which are all different individual pieces.

• Viseṣa - particularity: Visesa is often translated as ‘difference-identity’ by the Madhva scholars. It is a special contribution of Madhva to the group of categories. When we say that we see a table, it also means that we see it as different from the floor on which it is placed. Again, we also see it as different from all other objects. There is only one process of involving in the perception of both, the entity and its difference from all others. This is visesa, the self-linking capacity of substances, that enables them to assimilate the attributes into their very nature without obstructing the capacity of the attributes to display themselves. For instance, a ripe mango has several attributes: red color, softness, sweet taste and a flavor of its own. Mango is not only identified with them but also differentiated from them. Even these several attributes are different from one another. This special quality of the substance, of being different and being identified with the attributes inherent to it, is called ‘saviśeṣa-abheda’.

• Visista - the qualified: The viśiṣṭa or the qualified, is the ‘thing-in-itself’ with the qualifying adjuncts (viśeṣaṇas). In a single perception it is seen to be one. The subtraction or addition of any viśeṣaṇa will produce a new viśiṣṭa. Hence the whole is something more than its parts.

• Amśi - the whole: Amśī is the entity that has anśas or fractions or parts. A cloth is an amśī whereas its threads are its anśas. Incarnations of God are called ‘svarupāmśa’ whereas the jīvas are termed as ‘bhinnāmśa’.

• Śakti - power: Śakti is the capacity or power. It is said to be of four kinds:

1. Brahman’s power beyond human comprehension
2. Induced power in consecrated images
3. The super-sensory power in causes which produces the effects
4. The power of words to produce their meanings

• Sādṛśya - similarity: Sādṛśya is resemblance or similarity. After seeing one cow, when we see another, we observe not only a new cow but also the resemblance between the two. Since resemblance cannot reside in either of the cows, it must be recognized as a separate category.

• Abhava - negation: Abhāva or negation, though not positive, is considered as a category in this system. The four varieties, same as the Nyāya Vaiśeṣika-system, are:

1. Prāgabhāva - perception of non-existence before a thing is produced
2. Pradhvarisā-bhāva - perception of its absence after it is destroyed
3. Anyonyā-bhāva - perception of the mutual non existence of one thing in another
4. Atyantābhāva - absolute non-existence

The absence of a pot before its production and after its destruction is the example for the first two abhāvas. The reciprocal negation between a jar and a cloth is the example for the third. The ‘son of a barren woman’ or the ‘horns of a hare’ are the illustrations for the last.

Theology

The doctrine of pancabhedas or five-old differences is the fundamental to dvaita philosophy of Madhava. According to this doctrine, Brahmin is different from the jivas and the prakṛti. The jivas are different from one another and from the prakṛti. The various objects evolved out of prakṛti are also different from one another.

Classification by Dvaita Metaphysics

Dvaita metaphysics divides the ultimate categories into two groups:

1. The svatantra - absolutely free Reality : Brahman or God is svatantra.
2. The asvatantra - the dependent reality : Lakṣmī (God’s consort), the jīvas or the individual souls and prakṛti or nature are asvatantra.

Though God does not create them he is their absolute master and controller both from inside and outside.

Svatantra Entity

God or Brahman is accounted as the Svatantra entity. The characteristics of Brahman as described in this system are as follows:

• God has no physical body and anthropomorphic form.
• He is all-pervading.
• He is Viṣṇu, also called Hari, Narāyana, Puruṣottama, Kṛṣna, Vasudeva and by several other names.
• He is the creator, destroyer and the controller of the universe in every aspect.
• He is full of infinite auspicious attributes described in the scriptures.
• He is the quintessence of all perfection.
• No imperfection in the asvatantra categories can ever touch him.
• Maya is his acintyaśakti (inconceivable power) by which he performs all cosmic activities like creation, sustenance, dissolution, control, enlightenment, obscuration, bondage and release of the souls.
• Grace is his one of the most important attributes that helps a jiva devoted to him, to be redeemed.
• He can incarnate himself as avatar. All the avataras are equal, though the manifestation of his power may be different in them.
• The Vedas are the only source of information about God.
• Though he can be apprehended by them, he can never be comprehended.
• The authority of secondary scriptures like the Mahābhārata and the purānas should also be accepted since they are works of Vyasa, the editor of the Vedas.

Asvatantra Entity

Lakṣmi

Lakṣmi, represented as the consort of Viṣṇu, is the foremost among the conscious entities. Though absolutely dependent upon him, she has no bondage and is co-eval with the Viṣṇu. Hence he is called as ‘Samana’.

Like Viṣṇu she is omnipresent and has no material form. She can manifest in infinite forms. Viṣṇu has bestowed his own cosmic powers on her, through which she can control the destinies of the jivas and the modifications of prakrti, the insentient nature.

Jivas or Individual Souls

• A jiva or an individual soul, is the center of the I-sense which is endowed with consciousness and will.
• It has the powers to know, to act and to enjoy.
• It is atomic in size, but can pervade the body it occupies.
• It has an inherent capacity to know itself and others.
• It is a pratibimba or a reflection of God and hence gets a faint imprint of some of his attributes like self-luminosity and bliss. But eventually he is ever dependent on him.
• The jivas are infinite in number and different from each other.
• They belong from all the products of prakṛti. Each is unique.
• Its ignorance of its real nature as the center of consciousness, different from the body-mind complex, is called ‘avidyā’ and is due to the will of God.
• It is this that has brought about its saṅsara or transmigratory bondage.
• Unlike the other systems of Vedanta, the dvaita system of Madhva categorizes the jivas into three permanent groups:

1. Mukti-yogyas - those which are fit for salvation: The jivas of this group are receptive to spiritual values. By concentrated spiritual disciplines and the grace of God, they can get salvation.
2. Nitya-saṅsarins - the eternally transmigrating ones: This group jivas are worldlings who delight only in worldly values and feel no need for ethical and spiritual life. Hence they undergo transmigration eternally.
3. Tamo-yogyas - the damned ones: The jīvas of this group are positively evil by nature, go on progressively degenerating, finally ending in eternal perdition.

Prakṛti or Nature

Prakṛti or nature is the ultimate source of the physical universe. It is eternal but insentient. The three guṇas, sattva, rajas and tamas, are regarded as its first products. In succession to it, the mahat (intellect), ahaṅkāra (egoism), manas (mind), the indriyas (sen¬sory organs) and the five bhutas (elements like earth, water etc.) increases. This evolution of prakṛti is similar to that of Sāṅkhya philosophy. However, being a dependent reality, it evolves not by itself but by the will of God. He exercises his will as per the karmas or deserts of the jīvas.

Since prakṛti is the upādānakāraṇa or the material cause of the universe, it is necessary to describe the dvaita view about the cause and effect relationship. When a pot is produced out of clay, clay is the cause (kāraṇa) and pot is the effect (kārya). The Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika view that the effect did not exist in the cause. This phenomenon is called ‘asatkāryavāda,’ the doctrine that the effect did not exist (asat) in the cause. According to the Sāṅkhya-Yoga view accepted by certain schools of Vedānta, the effect (kārya) pre-existed (sat) in the cause (kāraṇa) though in a subtle form. This view is called ‘satkāryavāda’.

The Dvaita Vedānta however, differs from both these schools and puts its own view. It's view is called as ‘sad-asat-kārya-vāda,’ the doctrine that the effect is both sat (existent) and asat (non-existent) though not simultaneously. Before production, the pot, existed as the kāraṇa or the cause but not as kārya or effect. After its production, it existed as kārya or effect, but not as kāraṇa or cause. However like other doctrines, the Dvaita Vedānta recognizes the efficient cause (nimittakāraṇa) also.

Avyākṛta or Unmodified Space

The dvaita system postulates an avyākṛta-ākāśa or unmodified space as a fundamental and permanent category which is co-eval with God. It is different from the bhutākāśa or elemental space which is a product of prakṛti. This ākāśa enables one to perceive dik (direction) like east and west. It exists even in pralaya or dissolution. It is infinite.

Mokṣa or Liberation

A jīva is in sansāra or bondage due to avidyā or ignorance induced in him by God who is the absolutely independent Reality. Hence jīva can get liberation from that bondage only by the grace of God.

A jīva must first acquire jñāna or knowledge of God, his greatness and goodness, through the scriptures by approaching a competent guru or preceptor. Bhakti or devotion towards God and ultimately winning his prasāda or grace can be acquired through:

1. Śravaṇa - listening to the scriptures
2. Manana - reflecting on their teachings
3. Dhyāna - meditation

Bhakti is the primary means of salvation in this system. The nine fold devotion that is described in the Bhagavata is strongly recommended by Madhva for liberation. Madhva does not recognize vidvesa-bhakti of Hiranyakasipu or Śiśupala as bhakti or a eulogy of concentration. He does not recommend madhura-bhakti to ordinary mortals and declares it as fit only for the apsara (nymph-like) jivas.

Vairagya or a spirit of renunciation and purity of mind by the practice of Karmayoga, as described in the Bhagavadgita, must precede the above-mentioned disciplines. Duties pertaining to one’s life must be continued to be performed till the end. All this applies only to the muktiyogya jivas and not to the other two varieties.

In mokṣa, the jiva attains its original state of freedom and bliss in accordance with its intrinsic capacity. Since no two jivas are identical, gradation persists even in the state of liberation. After the death of the body, jivas that has qualified to attain the final liberation, has all of its karma destroyed. It passes through several subtle regions led by the ativahikas or heavenly guides and goes to Brahmaloka, the supreme abode of Brahma. This abode is also known as Hiraṇyagarbha. At the end of the kalpa or the creative cycle, when Brahmaloka dissolves the jiva along with Brahma, it enters into Vaikuntha, the abode of Visnu. It does this after abandoning the suksmasarira or the subtle body and assuming a divine body made of suddha-sattva (pure, untainted, sattva). The system also posits a fourfold distinction in moksa:

1. Salokya - residence in the same region
2. Samipya - being near to God
3. Sarupya - having a form similar to that of God
4. Sayujya - togetherness with him

CONCLUSION

The contribution of the dvaita of Madhva to philosophical tradition is considerable. Madhva’s sharp logic shatters the snobbish attitude of some thinkers who consider devotion to be secondary to knowledge. He restores it to it's rightful place. For him, to love is to know and to know is to love.

He categorizes the jivas into three groups as salvable, world-bound and damnable. He also lifts God above all the blame for the evils in the world. His theology and ethics are supported by a strong epistemology. The doctrines of sakṣi, viśesa and bheda are his original contribution. He has also successfully established the harmony of the Upaniṣadic thoughts with those of the itihasas (epics) and the puranas (mythology).

An earnest study of his dvaita system can certainly enrich our knowledge and increase our devotion to God thus making our spiritual evolution much more easy.

References

• The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore